Q&A Hero

Q: Although slavery is mostly thought of as a southern institution, it was also deeply engrained in the north; the African Burial Ground in downtown New York City contains the remains of between 10,000 and 20,000 people that were buried there during the 1700s.

Q: In spite of the fact that Thomas Jefferson regarded the institution of slavery as brutal and immoral, and that he himself favored its abolition, he nonetheless had a slave force at times numbering 200 people.

Q: Modern plantation and slave archaeology is usually aimed at architectural reconstruction, with public education focused on the genteel antebellum way of life, now a thing of the past.

Q: A major concern of modern historical archaeology is uncovering the histories of disenfranchised groups whose histories have often been ignored or incorrectly recorded.

Q: The goals and research interests of historical archaeology have remained largely unchanged since its earliest practice.

Q: While historical archaeology is currently one of the most important directions in current archaeology, its development occurred much later in time than did prehistoric archaeology; the earliest historic archaeological excavations did not take place until the mid-20th century.

Q: Critical theorists argue that the proper role of the historian is to a. Leave the beginnings of contemporary class-based ideologies to another time when prejudices are absent b. Unearth the beginnings of repression to end prejudice c. Unearth the beginnings of contemporary class-based ideologies " distortions that rationalize forms of exploitation, such as slavery d. Cooperate with historical archaeologists

Q: Fort Mose, on the border of Georgia and Florida, was the site of a. The first legally sanctioned slave auction b. The first legally sanctioned free African-American community c. The last legally sanctioned slave auction d. The last legally sanctioned free African-American community

Q: Blakey's research team organized to study the African burial Ground in New York included a. Geologists b. Anthropologists c. Geneticists d. B and C

Q: American historical archaeologists work to recover the history of communities by excavating the immigrant communities of a. Early nineteenth century mining towns b. Chinese railroad labor camps c. Episcopal communities d. A and B

Q: Michael Blakey's analysis of some 400 individuals from the First African Baptist Cemetery in Philadelphia revealed a. Half the population died before the age of 30 b. Half the population died before the age of 12 c. Half the population died after the emancipation of slaves d. Some of the deaths were due to suicides

Q: Which of the following is true about Thomas Jefferson? a. Jefferson reportedly mistreated the enslaved population. b. Jefferson doubted whether Caucasians and Africans could successfully create a biracial society. c. Did not favor a plan to transport free blacks to Africa or elsewhere. d. Was not the father of children with Sally Hemings, as previously claimed.

Q: Research at Mulberry Row helps us understand a. Nineteenth century slave auctions. b. Proportions of enslaved people to Europeans. c. Slave life at Monticello. d. The traditional melting pot theme in American history.

Q: Why are there so few African Americans doing archaeology? a. Although there is plenty of information on the subject, no one has cared to know why. b. People from marginalized groups do not pursue advanced degrees. c. People from marginalized groups do not desire to engage in work that is meaningful. d. The lack of opportunities to study archaeology at historically black colleges and universities.

Q: Three major areas of historical archaeological research today include a. Historically disenfranchised groups. b. Questions about the recent past left unanswered by history books. c. Asian colonialism and its effects on indigenous peoples. d. A and B

Q: Why do historical archaeology if we already have the historical records? a. Historical records are personal opinions written at the time and are all considered to be not only biased, but wrong. b. Historical sources can be biased, intentionally or not. c. Historical archaeologists like current history. d. Historical archaeologists do not like very old archaeological evidence.

Q: A critique of the modern social order that emphasizes exploitative class interests and that aims to change and not simply to understand society is called: a. Georgian order b. Medieval mind-set c. Critical theory d. None of the above.

Q: Why does historical archaeology occupy such a prominent position within archaeology? a. A large number of historical sites are uncovered by construction projects driven by a growing population, and cultural resource management laws require that they are dealt with. b. Many people are interested in the colonial and post-colonial history of the United States. c. The histories of people who were oppressed or victimized in the past are often only discovered through historical archaeology; knowledge of these histories can empower living descendant communities. d. All of the above.

Q: Leone's realization that, in its early stages, the Annapolis archaeology program had overlooked a major portion of the city, led to: a. Archaeologists teaching the African-American community about their history. b. A general unwillingness among the African-American community to participate in the archaeologists' research. c. A dialogue between Annapolis archaeologists and the local African-American community. d. The ultimate abandonment of the project.

Q: Why were Leone and Potter disappointed with the results of the public archaeological tours that they designed, where tourists often have a chance to walk through the ongoing archaeological excavations in historic Annapolis? a. The tours were not popular with tourists or local residents. b. The tours did not seem to provide the public with any greater awareness of the modern oppression and victimization caused by capitalism. c. The public tours were damaging the archaeological site, and were shut down before Leone and Potter could spread their message. d. All of the above.

Q: A major goal of critical theory is: a. Social change. b. Justification of contemporary class-based ideologies. c. Generating sound scientific hypotheses. d. To remain politically neutral.

Q: According to Leone, which of the following aspects of Annapolis reflect an upper-class Anglo-American show of power? a. The layout of the city itself. b. The formal gardens of wealthy households. c. Use of optical illusions in landscape architecture to manipulate view and control perspective. d. All of the above.

Q: How does Leone explain the appearance and popularity of formal Georgian gardens in wealthy Annapolis homes during the mid 18th century? a. The wildness and lack of order in the gardens represented the Georgian idea that humans could ultimately never triumph over nature, and that natural beauty would always surpass cultural attempts to beautify the natural world. b. The gardens expressed the Enlightenment idea of the power of reason over nature, and that nature controlled by culture was more desirable and attractive than nature alone. c. Georgian gardens, like any other stylistic choice, came into favor and went out of favor randomly; the gardens had nothing to do with the rest of Georgian culture. d. The gardens expressed the ideal of social and economic equality among all people which was popular at the time.

Q: What do Glassie and Deetz argue that the differences between Georgian material culture and medieval material culture signal about differences between the cultures themselves? a. The differences mark a shift from a culture that focused on the group and saw people as conforming to nature, to a culture that focused on the individual and control of nature. b. The differences mark a shift from a culture that focused on the individual and control of nature, to a culture that focused on the group and saw people as conforming to nature. c. Medieval culture relied on the power of reason to understand the world around them and gain control of the natural world, while Georgian culture was content to conform to nature, rather control it. d. The differences between medieval and Georgian material culture are so slight that they really cannot indicate anything about the differences between the cultures themselves.

Q: How does American colonial Georgian material culture differ from the material culture of the colonial medieval mind-set that preceded it? a. Whereas medieval houses had only one or two rooms, Georgian houses were functionally structured and compartmentalized. b. Food preparation shifted from chopping bones to sawing them, as evidenced by the shift from bones with articulated joints to more difficult to identify segmented cuts; ceramics also shifted from plain, utilitarian earthenware to more technologically advanced matched sets with serving vessels. c. Whereas trash was simply tossed out of doors and windows during medieval days, it was disposed of in deep pits during Georgian times. d. All of the above.

Q: The culture of the early (pre-AD 1660) British colonies that emphasized the group rather than the individual, and in which the line between culture and nature was blurred, is known as: a. The Georgian order. b. The Age of Reason. c. The Renaissance. d. The medieval mind-set.

Q: The postprocessual paradigm that emphasizes the importance of archaeologists' understanding of the specific contexts within which they work, and of the notion that knowledge is situated within a cultural framework and can consequently serve special interests, is: a. Called critical theory. b. Known by critics who question its relevance as a "medieval mind-set." c. Often useful in prehistoric archaeology, but is rarely considered useful for historical archaeology. d. All of the above.

Q: The monument honoring the events that occurred at the Battle of the Little Bighorn differs today from when it was erected in 1881 in that: a. While it was initially named the Little Bighorn Battlefield National Monument, opposition groups were successful in changing the name to Custer Battlefield. b. In 1881, it was thought that Indian warriors had slaughtered Custer and his army, and so it was that event that the monument depicted; today archaeology has shown that Custer and his men actually won the battle, and so the monument now depicts that event. c. A new memorial now also honors the fallen Cheyenne, Lakota, and Arapaho warriors. d. All of the above.

Q: What was archaeological investigation of the battlefield at Little Bighorn able to conclude about the nature of the battle? a. Virtually no evidence of formal tactics such as skirmish lines, supporting Indian accounts of chaos and hand-to-hand fighting. b. Evidence of abundant skirmish lines, supporting settler accounts of Custer and his men fighting in a calm and controlled manner. c. Custer's personal movements could be tracked by the presence of brass cartridges, as he had the only weapon on the battlefield that used them; his movements indicate that he maintained control of the battle until his death. d. The battle lasted for days, with control of the battle switching frequently from Custer's army to the Indians, and back again before Custer's troops were finally completely subdued.

Q: Archaeological investigation of the battlefield at Little Bighorn was able to determine combatant positions and movements. How was this accomplished? a. Intensive excavations of graves marked by grave markers that determined the position of American soldiers and Indian warriors where they fell in combat. b. Extensive horizontal excavations that recovered numerous skeletal remains and artifacts of the battle, such as shell casings. c. Survey with metal detectors that located cartridges and bullets, the positions of which were then carefully mapped. d. All of the above.

Q: Custer's "last stand" was immortalized in several paintings created in the 1890s by both Native Americans and white American settlers. The images created by the American whites generally show: a. Custer and his army being slaughtered by Lakota, Northern Cheyenne, and Arapaho warriors. b. Custer and his men fighting bravely and calmly, well-disciplined to the end. c. The Indian people fleeing in panic and fear, trying to escape Custer's army that was clearly controlling the battle. d. The merciless slaughter of Indian women, children, and the elderly by Custer's army.

Q: The battle of the Little Bighorn took place in: a. Wyoming. b. Montana. c. South Dakota. d. Nebraska.

Q: Fort Mose, near the Georgia-Florida border, was found by Kathleen Deagan in 1986. This site is important because: a. It is the site of a large battle that took place in 1876 between General Custer and the Lakota people, resulting in the death of Custer's entire army. b. It demonstrates the general unwillingness of state governments to become involved in archaeological projects, usually because they cannot bear the monetary cost. c. It demonstrated how the earliest slaves in North America were treated by the Spanish, information that was previously unknown. d. It was the first legally sanctioned, free African-American community in the country, and therefore provides a different perspective on African-American history than that provided by slave archaeology alone.

Q: What happened to the human skeletal remains from the African Burial Ground project? a. They were reburied in October of 2003, after they had been analyzed. b. They were stored in a basement at the World Trade Center along with all of the excavation documents from the project; everything was destroyed when the building collapsed on September 11, 2001. c. They are on display at the African Burial Ground Center, which is actively engaged in bringing the findings of the project to the public. d. They were stolen from storage in 2003 and have not yet been recovered; authorities believe they were taken by local community members who opposed the project.

Q: How did public involvement in the African Burial Ground project influence the project's research design? a. It had very little influence; the local African-American community had doubts that any of the interred individuals were actually their ancestors, and so consequently had little desire to be involved in the project. b. The local community, refusing to let their ancestors be further exploited, called for the immediate reburial of any human skeletal remains and associated grave goods without analysis or documentation; the project's research design was therefore never realized. c. The archaeologists worked with the local community, incorporating their concerns and questions into the project's research design, resulting in community empowerment as well as a more meaningful research project. d. In order to reduce the controversy associated with the project, the federal government allowed the local community to take complete control of the research design; the result was a lack of rigorous scientific methodology and a more humanistic and ideological approach to the project.

Q: Bioarchaeological analysis of the skeletal remains from the African Burial Ground site determined that unlike the slaves' lives in New York, their lives in Africa were: a. Plagued by malnutrition and severe disease, with abundant evidence of hypoplasias and other pathologies b. Relatively free of malnutrition and severe disease, with little evidence of hypoplasias or other pathologies. c. Characterized by extremely hard physical labor, as indicated by enlarged muscle attachments and lesions from torn muscles. d. Characterized by extreme violence and warfare, as indicated by the presence of abundant healed and unhealed skeletal fractures.

Q: Bioarchaeological analysis of the burials from the African Burial Ground site in New York City showed that: a. Nearly all of the burials were individuals > 55 years old; the earliest slaves were therefore treated better than archaeologists had assumed based on the known treatment of later slaves. b. Half of the population died before reaching the age of 12, with another peak in mortality between the ages of 15 and 20. c. The population had suffered from extreme malnutrition and rampant disease, but they were not forced to work very hard. d. The skeletal remains were too poorly reserved to determine anything about demographic structure or pathology of the burial population.

Q: Slave archaeology at Jefferson's Monticello plantation in Virginia has helped interpret historical records from the time. For instance, written records document that Jefferson moved Critta Hemings (part of his house staff) from a large house with a brick floor, a stone fireplace, and architectural embellishments, to a small simple house with dirt floors. Yet she remained a part of his house staff, a normally favored status. Slave quarter excavations showed: a. That Hemings was demoted; she and her family were forced to move from the large house where only they lived to much smaller quarters which they had to share with several other families. b. That the move actually provided Hemings and her family with access to subfloor pits in which they could store their possessions, helping them maintain some privacy and security. c. That the move actually allowed Hemings and her family to have a house of their own, rather than sharing a household with other families. d. Hemings never actually moved; she and her family remained in her large house in spite of Jefferson's demands.

Q: Which of the following is true of Thomas Jefferson? a. He was the third president of the United States, as well as an architect, inventor, scholar, diplomat, and archaeologist. b. He had a slave force numbering 200 people at times, and he knew that without slavery the agrarian economy of the time would collapse. c. He probably fathered six children with one of his house slaves, Sally Hemings. d. All of the above.

Q: Early plantation archaeology (prior to the 1960s) was primarily aimed at: a. Architectural reconstruction, emphasizing the grandeur of the antebellum way of life. b. Verifying the written records of the time. c. Uncovering information about aspects of slave life that written records from the time did not address. d. Dispelling the "melting pot" perspective of American history.

Q: Which of the following is not a major theme of research in historical archaeology today? a. The study of historically disenfranchised groups whose histories were incompletely recorded, recorded in a biased manner, or still sometimes ignored. b. Attempts to resolve disputes over the nature of key historical events. c. Attempts to locate and describe the oldest, largest, or most historically significant sites in order to ensure their protection. d. The nature of European colonialism, the development of capitalism, and their effects on indigenous peoples.

Q: How does contemporary historical archaeology differ from its prehistoric counterpart? a. Modern historical archaeology often has a postprocessual slant to it, addressing humanistic and ideological concerns. b. Historical archaeologists tend not to study large-scale processes; the high degree of temporal resolution in historic sites often leads investigators to focus on specific events or individuals. c. Because historical archaeology deals with the relatively recent past, and all the cultural, political, and ethical challenges therein, it is often emotionally charged. d. All of the above.

Q: Which of the following is true of historical archaeology today? a. The research interests of historical archaeology are fairly limited, focusing on plantations. b. Historical archaeology is highly specialized, with its own journals and professional organizations, and a broad range of research interests. c. Due to recent changes in cultural resource management legislation, historical archaeology is no longer required by the federal government. d. Historical archaeology is rapidly growing in popularity.

Q: Written records document the historic past. So why do archaeologists do historical archaeology? a. Documentary sources can be selective and biased toward the interests of particular cultural, political, or ethnic groups. b. Documentary sources do not exist for most of the historic past. c. Archaeological excavations can demonstrate that historical records are wrong, and thus useless for inferring anything about the past. d. None of the above; if written records exist, archaeologists do not bother with historical archaeology.

Q: The study of human behavior through material remains, for which written history in some way affects its interpretation, is: a. Prehistoric and historical archaeology. b. Historical archaeology. c. Processual archaeology. d. Postprocessual archaeology.

Q: The earliest explorations in historical archaeology were conducted to: a. Disprove the validity of documentary sources and show that archaeological excavation was the only way to truly understand the past. b. Understand how early European settlers interacted with existing Native American populations. c. Understand more about the investigators' own pasts. d. Justify colonial expansion and racist treatment of Native Americans.

Q: Ideology is a set of cultural, religious, or cosmological beliefs that rationalizes exploitative relations between classes or social groups, masking the fact that one group is exploiting another.

Q: Archaic state formation did not occur anywhere until roughly AD 500; archaic states then spread rapidly from their birthplace in the Near East throughout much of the world.

Q: Evidence supporting the idea of Unilineal Evolution includes the adoption of agriculture; ethnographic data show that once hunter-gatherers become aware of agricultural techniques, they adopt them quickly.

Q: Optimal foraging theory operates on the principle that humans will select foods that offer high return rates, or the most calories for the amount of time invested in procurement and processing.

Q: The density equilibrium model argues that people will adopt domesticated plants and agriculture whenever they are exposed to them because of the superior productivity of agriculture.

Q: Agriculture developed only once roughly 10,000 years ago in the Near East, and from there spread rapidly throughout much of the world.

Q: To an archaeologist, "civilization" refers only to those cultures with writing systems, public performance in the form of plays, and full-time musicians.

Q: Prior to about 12,000 years ago, all humans lived in chiefdoms.

Q: Although unilineal cultural evolution collapsed under the assault by Boas and his students and is still rejected by anthropology today, archaeological data do show strong regularities in human cultural evolution.

Q: The comparative method of 19th century social science took diversity in the world's cultures and put them in an evolutionary sequence. Those with "simple" technology were at the bottom of the scale, and those with the most complex technology were at the top.

Q: John Lubbock's influential archaeology textbook Prehistoric Times (1865) led to the belief that contemporary "primitives" were living relics of prehistory; therefore questions about the past could be answered simply by observing a living culture that approximated the archaeological culture in question.

Q: A basic knowledge of plant reproduction is necessary for an agriculturalist, but such knowledge is not sufficient to inspire all foragers to transform themselves into agriculturalists.

Q: Ethnographic research has turned up evidence of hunters and gatherers who know about _______________but who continue to _____________________. a. Social complexity/remain archaic b. Fishing/farm c. Agriculture/hunt and gather d. Hunting/fish

Q: Once archaeological data began to accumulate, archaeologists shifted their attention from _________________of plant and animal domestication to ____________. a. Species/varieties b. Dates/places c. What and when/why d. Biology/culture

Q: "Archaic" in relation to states is used to a. Distinguish ancient social forms from modern industrial states. b. Distinguish ancient forms of society with elected officials and prime ministers. c. Distinguish outdated forms of society. d. Distinguish states with small, declining population numbers.

Q: Egalitarian societies are associated with _________and ____________. a. Intensive farming/ domestication of animals b. Hunting and gathering/agriculture c. Hunting and gathering/horticulture d. Horticulture/agriculture

Q: Ethnocentrism means a. The study of ethnic ideology. b. The attitude or belief that one ethnicity is shared by all. c. The attitude or belief that one's own cultural ways are superior to another. d. A force that ethnicity's apply to increase social complexity.

Q: Anthropology ___________________the paradigm of unilineal cultural evolution. a. Still embraces b. Recently discarded c. Does not recognize as important to the history of anthropological thought d. Long ago discarded

Q: A basic knowledge of plant reproduction is ________________ for an agriculturalist. a. Sufficient b. Necessary c. Critical d. Nonessential

Q: When analyzing the origins of agriculture a. There is a single prime mover to account for the development b. There is no single prime mover to account for the development c. Various paradigms each contribute something to a final explanation. d. B and C

Q: Archaeology constructs specific historical sequences in order to a. Establish theories about necessary conditions. b. Establish theories about major cultural evolutionary transitions. c. Compare and then look for patterns to determine what conditions are necessary and sufficient to explain major cultural evolutionary transitions. d. Argue about the rise of agriculture in the New vs. Old World.

Q: The difference between sufficient and necessary conditions in an explanation is that sufficient conditions a. Are those that must exist for a change to happen. b. Are those that are the maximum ones needed for a change to occur. c. Are those that are the minimum ones needed for a change to occur. d. Are easier to ascertain than are necessary conditions.

Q: Explanations for the collapse of culture on Rapa Nui include: a. Surrounding waters lacked reefs that support fish for food. b. They cut down trees to build homes and canoes. c. Rats feasted on pine nuts and birds' eggs. d. All of the above.

Q: What can likely explain the formation of the Maya state? a. Stress on food resources created by high population density. b. The need for an overarching system of integration. c. Opportunities for economic control. d. All of the above.

Q: The Maya developed three calendrical accounts of time using complex astronomical observations and mathematics. Which two calendar types overlap so that a renewal point is reached every 52 years? a. The Long Count and the Vague Year. b. The Vague Year and the Sacred Almanac. c. The Sacred Almanac and the Long Count. d. None; the Mayans only used a single calendar.

Q: Maya hieroglyphics were used to record: a. Economic information relating to trade networks. b. Significant events in Maya history. c. Information about human sacrifice. d. Information about farming techniques.

Q: Which of the following is true of Maya kings? a. They claimed to be descended from the gods, and conducted rituals to appease the gods and prevent the universe from collapsing. b. They received annual tribute from conquered populations, and allowed lesser nobles to earn privileges and acquire control over conquered resources by helping the king. c. They competed with one another to determine who was the greatest among them, using war to subdue unruly neighbors as well as to demonstrate their ability to prevent chaos in the world. d. All of the above.

Q: The Classic period (AD250-700), when the lowland Maya took on the characteristics of the archaic state, was characterized by continuous population growth. Survey data indicate that as many as ___________ people lived in the lowland Maya area at this time. a. 10 thousand. b. 500 thousand. c. 1 million. d. 10 million.

Q: The _____________ hypothesis, proposed by Robert Carneiro, attributes the origin of the state to a combination of population growth and limited agricultural resources which leads to increased warfare, which in turn fosters centralized political organization. a. Irrigation hypothesis. b. Warfare and circumscription hypothesis. c. Hilly flanks hypothesis. d. Density-equilibrium hypothesis.

Q: The "irrigation hypothesis" argues that large-scale irrigation was directly responsible for the origin of archaic states. This hypothesis was suggested by: a. Karl Wittfogel, who argued that irrigation inherently calls for regulation of water use and an extraordinary level of coordination above the individual farmer. b. Robert Carneiro, who argued that irrigation would lead to fights over land rights. c. Karl Wittfogel, who argued that irrigation would lead to fights over land rights. d. Robert Carneiro, who argued that irrigation inherently calls for regulation of water use and an extraordinary level of coordination above the individual farmer.

Q: All of the following characterize the rise of archaic states, except: a. Monumental architecture. b. Warfare. c. Hunting and gathering. d. Market economies.

Q: Which of the following is likely to have played a part in the origins of agriculture? a. Climatic change; foragers could not become agriculturalists until the environment was capable of supporting agriculture. b. Population pressure; people were required to expand their diets and rely more heavily on plants. c. Human intentionality; changes in wild cereals suggest that humans intended to increase harvest productivity and efficiency. d. All of the above.

Q: The period during which people began using ground stone tools, manufacturing ceramics, and relying on domesticated plants and animals is known in the Near East as the: a. Natufian. b. Upper Paleolithic. c. Neolithic. d. Younger Dryas.

Q: A(n) ____________ perspective demonstrates that the first plants to be domesticated and eventually turned into today's agricultural staples began as wild plants with low return rates, plants that were used when other, better resources were depleted. a. Optimal foraging. b. Historical particularist. c. Post-processual. d. Unilineal evolutionary.