Q&A Hero

Q: On her first visit to China, Jane did not know how to pay for the produce she had selected at a market. She watched several Chinese women pay for their selections, and then Jane copied their behavior. In this example, Jane used ________. A) shaping B) stimulus discrimination C) modeling D) stimulus generalization

Q: A sales manager pays a bonus to new trainees when they develop a good sales prospectus. Later, after the trainees have completed two months of training, the manger pays a bonus only for an actual sale. The manager is applying what process of instrumental conditioning to help the trainees be productive in their sales careers? A) shaping B) modeling C) negative reinforcement D) variable-ratio reinforcement

Q: Claudia Norman, a marketing consultant, recommended that brand equity for a new environmentally-friendly product could be established by giving initial customers free memberships in the Sierra Club organization. Claudia used which of the following in her recommendation? A) promotional conditioning B) emotional learning C) classical conditioning D) instrumental conditioning

Q: John wants to teach his dog to do tricks such as "sit up," "roll over," and "fetch a stick." By systematically rewarding his dog for responding in the correct way, John is able to accomplish great progress over a 30-day period. John was able to teach his dog using which of the following learning processes? A) classical conditioning B) instrumental conditioning C) stimulation conditioning D) extinction conditioning

Q: Herbal companies traditionally sold their products in cylinder-shaped plastic containers that were very characteristic of the herbal market. One company broke with tradition and began to sell its herbal products in bottles that appeared to be straight from the pharmacy's shelf. They were rectangular with white labels that looked very professional and very serious. Sales went through the roof. What form of stimulus generalization most likely worked for the herbal company? A) masked branding B) halo effect C) continual reinforcement D) shaping

Q: Frank is sitting in his Psychology 101 class listening to his professor attempt to explain the "black box" process and its connection with learning. He suddenly smells the aroma of fresh cinnamon rolls, and his mouth begins to water. He looks around and sees a student in the last row bite into a big, juicy roll. "I wish I were sitting next to him," Frank thinks, "because I know I could steal a bite." What Frank just went through in class was similar to the "black box" process being described by his professor. This process is most closely associated with which of the following learning methods? A) incidental learning B) Gestalt learning C) cognitive learning D) behavioral learning

Q: Sam Bolton hums the Purina Cat Chow jingle as he drives down the expressway. A thought suddenly occurs to Sam: "Why am I humming this stupid jingle? I don't buy this stuff. In fact, I don't even have a cat." Sam knows this jingle through ________. A) stimulus generalization B) reinforcement modeling C) incidental learning D) operant conditioning

Q: Many marketers use "the good old days" as a common theme in promotional messages. This is a strategy of focusing on ________. A) the highlighting effect B) the halo effect C) nostalgia D) memory spikes

Q: People tend to give "yes" responses to questions, regardless of what they are asked. This is an example of ________. A) response bias B) elaborative rehearsal C) salience D) nostalgia

Q: In a typical ________ test, subjects are shown ads one at a time and asked if they have seen them before. A) recall B) recognition C) chunking D) salience

Q: Which of the following has occurred when a stimulus is able to evoke a weakened response years after the stimulus was first perceived? A) spontaneous recovery B) scripting C) reverse extinction D) response bias

Q: Almost any technique that increases the novelty of a stimulus also improves recall of the stimulus. This result is called the ________. A) highlighting effect B) von Restorff Effect C) spacing effect D) halo effect

Q: Memories of products are often replaced (forgotten) as we learn additional information. This displacement of information is called ________. A) the highlighting effect B) interference C) decay D) generalization

Q: Within a knowledge structure, which of the following is the LEAST complex knowledge unit? A) meaning B) proposition C) schema D) script

Q: ________ memory permits temporary storage of information we receive from our senses. A) Elaborative B) Sensory C) Cognitive D) Working

Q: ________ memories relate to events that are personally relevant; therefore, a person's motivation to retain these memories will likely be strong. A) Sensory B) Episodic C) Primary D) Elaborative

Q: According to the information processing-approach to studying the memory process, in the ________ stage, information enters in a way the system will recognize it. A) storage B) retrieval C) encoding D) decoding

Q: ________ involves a process of acquiring information and storing it over time so that it will be available when needed. A) Memory B) Recognition C) Comprehension D) Attention

Q: ________ learning occurs when an individual watches the actions of others and notes the reinforcements they receive for their behaviors. A) Observational B) Reinforced C) Halo effect D) Masked

Q: What type of learning theory emphasizes that people are problem solvers who actively use information from the world around them to master their environment? A) instrumental conditioning B) classical conditioning C) cognitive learning D) operant conditioning

Q: The popular marketing technique known as ________ marketing applies the principles of instrumental conditioning by reinforcing regular purchases; consumers are given rewards with values that increase along with the amount purchased. A) rebate B) discount C) reward D) frequency

Q: A department store decides to use "secret shoppers" at unannounced times to test for service quality among its personnel. Store personnel are rewarded for excellent service attitudes. Which of the following reinforcement schedules would most likely apply in this situation? A) fixed-ratio reinforcement B) fixed-interval reinforcement C) variable-frequency reinforcement D) variable-interval reinforcement

Q: Determining the most effective reinforcement schedule to use with consumers is important to marketers. What type of reinforcement schedule is most likely being used when after a period of time has passed, the first response a consumer makes brings the reward? A) fixed-interval reinforcement B) variable-interval reinforcement C) fixed-ratio reinforcement D) variable-ratio reinforcement

Q: A woman no longer receives compliments on the perfume that she wears. In learning terms, the stimulus-response connection has weakened. Which of the following processes best explains what has occurred in the example? A) negative reinforcement B) extinction C) discrimination D) generalization

Q: What mechanism is used when a consumer learns to perform responses that produce rewarding outcomes? A) extinction B) punishment C) negative reinforcement D) positive reinforcement

Q: In instrumental conditioning, what is the distinction between negative reinforcement and punishment? A) There is no difference. They are two words for the same concept. B) Negative reinforcement can occur when a stimulus is positive, and punishment occurs when a stimulus is painful. C) Negative reinforcement occurs when a negative outcome is avoided, while punishment occurs when an action causes a negative outcome. D) Negative reinforcement creates a preference for negative results, while punishment teaches people to avoid negative results.

Q: If a woman gets compliments after wearing Obsession perfume, she is more likely to keep buying the product and wearing it. What type of instrumental conditioning has occurred in the situation? A) neutral reinforcement B) positive reinforcement C) negative reinforcement D) symbolic reinforcement

Q: The researcher and theorist most associated with instrumental conditioning is ________. A) Pavlov B) Skinner C) Keller D) Werner

Q: Another name for instrumental conditioning is ________ conditioning. A) operant B) neo-classical C) stimulus D) reward

Q: Family branding, licensing, and look-alike packaging are all marketing strategies based on ________. A) stimulus generalization B) the spacing effect C) stimulus discrimination D) extinction

Q: According to the theory of classical conditioning, ________ should be encouraged by promoting unique attributes of a well-established brand. A) stimulus generalization B) the halo effect C) stimulus discrimination D) extinction

Q: Which of the following occurs when a customer learns that two products are different even though the packages of both products look similar? A) extinction B) brand equity C) stimulus generalization D) stimulus discrimination

Q: The ________ refers to the tendency people have to react to stimuli similar to an original stimulus in a classical conditioning situation in much the same way they responded to the original stimulus. A) masking illusion B) sensory memory C) cueing effect D) halo effect

Q: Stimulus generalization refers to ________. A) the tendency for stimuli to be similar in nature B) the fact that most conditioned stimuli are similar to unconditioned stimuli C) the tendency of stimuli similar to a conditioned stimulus to evoke similar, conditioned responses D) the tendency for extinction to occur when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a stimulus similar to a conditioned stimulus

Q: If a conditioned stimulus is only occasionally matched with an unconditioned stimulus, the association between the two will become weakened. This is called ________. A) generalization B) interference C) the spacing effect D) extinction

Q: Classical conditioning takes place when a(n) ________ is continuously matched with a(n) ________. A) conditioned stimulus; conditioned response B) unconditioned response; conditioned response C) conditioned stimulus; unconditioned stimulus D) unconditioned stimulus; unconditioned response

Q: ________ was first demonstrated in experiments performed on dogs by Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist doing research on digestion in animals. A) Instrumental conditioning B) Classical conditioning C) Cognitive conditioning D) Extinction conditioning

Q: Which theory listed below assumes that learning takes place as the result of responses to external events? A) behavioral learning B) episodic learning C) incidental learning D) Gestalt learning

Q: Behavioral learning theorists do not focus on internal thought processes; rather, they look to external evidence to study learning. What aspects of the environment are of most concern to behaviorists in studying learning? A) energy and work B) stimulus and response C) thought and memory D) sensation and perception

Q: Much learning takes effort and time, but some learning is so casual as to be unintentional. This type of learning is referred to as ________ learning. A) stage one B) subliminal C) incidental D) evoked

Q: ________ refers to a relatively permanent change in behavior that is caused by experience. A) Adjustment B) Shaping C) Reinforcement D) Learning

Q: Measuring memory for marketing stimuli is often difficult. Discuss the differences between recognition and recall. Give examples of methods for testing each form. Which one is thought to be the more reliable measure of memory?

Q: People have a tendency to remember unusual ads more effectively than ads that are not. Why? What is this phenomenon called?

Q: Why would short-term memory be greatly impaired, or perhaps made impossible, without sensory memory?

Q: Variable reinforcements result in behavior that is more difficult to extinguish than fixed schedules. Why?

Q: Why isn't the behavioral change associated with breaking a bone typically considered to be learning?

Q: Gradually changing the package of a product that depends heavily on brand loyalty can be successful if each change is minor. Over the course of a year or more the package may change totally in appearance without offending or confusing brand loyal customers. What factors contribute to forgetting and allow this marketing strategy to work?

Q: An important factor in instrumental (operant) conditioning is the set of rules by which appropriate reinforcements are given for a behavior. The chapter discusses four possible schedules of reinforcement. Briefly describe each schedule and give a short example. Be sure to use the proper terminology for each schedule.

Q: Discuss what stimulus generalization and stimulus discrimination are and present an example of each that is relevant to the field of marketing.

Q: Jason heard an old but familiar song that reminded him about a summer in Austria when he was in college. As he thought more about his summer of the past, a flood of memories came rushing back. Describe what was happening to Jason in terms of memory markers. What specific term is used to describe the process whereby his memories came flooding back?

Q: What is the capacity of short-term memory? Comment and explain.

Q: For modeling behavior to occur during observational learning, four conditions must be met. What are those conditions? Be specific in your description.

Q: Give a brief explanation of cognitive learning.

Q: The process of stimulus generalization is often central to branding and packaging decisions that attempt to capitalize on consumers' positive associations with an existing brand or company name. In this context, list and briefly discuss the four strategies based on stimulus generalization presented in the text.

Q: Compare and contrast classical and instrumental (operant) conditioning.

Q: Define the terms learning and incidental learning.

Q: Episodic memories are likely to become part of a person's long-term memory.

Q: The success of hybrid ads supports the idea that the viewing environment of a marketing message affects recall.

Q: A mother observes her daughter stirring batter in a bowl just the way she does when she bakes. The daughter has modeled her mother's behavior.

Q: Fixed-interval reinforcement explains why airlines' frequent flyer programs are so successful.

Q: When Shira was a young girl, her teacher gave her a sticker every time she earned above 90% on a test. Shira's teacher was using classical conditioning.

Q: John Deere established a reputation for building dependable farm tractors. When the company began to build small yard tractors, it insisted on using the same logo on its small mowers as on its large tractors. John Deere was applying stimulus generalization through look-alike packaging.

Q: Shari Gomez sees the big red heart on the front of a Cheerios box and immediately thinks of an ad she has seen that discusses the heart-healthy benefits of Cheerios. This is an illustration of a stimulus-response connection.

Q: A free recall test of a sample of potential customers would involve showing ads one at a time and asking each respondent if she had seen it before.

Q: The salience of a brand refers to its degree of pricing flexibility (i.e., frequency of price changes).

Q: The spacing effect describes the tendency for consumers to recall printed material more effectively when the advertiser repeats the target item repeatedly in a short time period rather than periodically over a longer time span.

Q: At a business meeting, a consultant states that "perception is reality, because a customer never works with the actual product, but only with his or her perception of that product." In a university lab, researchers determine that when a rat is looking at a brightly colored rectangle, a close inspection of the rat's optic nerves (that connect the eyes to the cortex) show no visible change from when the rat is looking at a green circle; however, electrodes placed in the nerve show a different pattern of transmitted codes. How are these two events related, and what does this relationship tell us about perception?

Q: A sign on a drawer in the kitchen of a fraternity said "Plastic Silver." The drawer contained plastic spoons, forks, and knives for casual dinners. Use the principle of hyperreality to explain why users of the kitchen would know what was in the drawer without looking.

Q: Evaluate the effectiveness of subliminal persuasion and messages in marketing. Be sure to demonstrate your knowledge of the evidence about the success of the technique as presented in the text.

Q: Blind taste tests in the 1980s showed that most Coke drinkers preferred a cola that was sweeter than the current product. When Coca-Cola attempted to make its product sweeter, brand loyal customers revolted and demanded the old product be returned. Explain how Coca-Cola marketers could have used the principles of psychophysics to introduce the new coke without creating these problems.

Q: Research has shown Kinsei engineering can be an effective way to design products. Explain how Kinsei engineering works and give an illustration that demonstrates your understanding.

Q: As people age their sensory detection abilities decline. The Baby Boomers are fast reaching retirement age. How will advertisements in the future likely change sensory stimuli to accommodate this changing demographic?

Q: Outline and explain the parts of the perceptual process that would allow a shopper to recognize a ketchup bottle in a supermarket.

Q: What does the study of semiotics attempt to do?

Q: What does the word gestalt mean, and how does the term describe an important principle of the perceptual process?

Q: Advertising has increasingly become less effective because of increased clutter. How can advertisers use contrast to cut through the clutter?

Q: As a personal selection factor, adaptation is seen as the degree to which consumers continue to notice a stimulus over time. Five factors can lead to adaptation. List and briefly describe the connection with adaptation.

Q: Define perceptual selection and describe the types of filters that prevent clear perception and reception of marketing stimuli.

Q: Define the concepts of hedonic consumption and sensory marketing, and then explain how they are related.

Q: List the three stages of the perception process and give a brief definition of each.