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Psychology
Q:
Which of the following statements is true about learning using habituation versus operant conditioning?
A) In operant conditioning studies, infants retain certain information over much longer time spans than they do in habituation research.
B) Although habituation research tells us more about infant perceptual and cognitive capacities than operant conditioning, its findings are not clear-cut.
C) Operant conditioning studies reveals more about infant perceptual and cognitive capacities than habituation research.
D) Operant conditioning studies are a more reliable predictor of later intelligence than habituation and recovery.
Q:
Studies of familiarity preference show that infantsA) look longer at the features of a familiar person than the action in which the person is engaged.B) are better at discriminating faces in static displays than in moving displays.C) retain information much longer in operant conditioning studies than in habituation studies.D) look longer at a familiar action than the features of the person engaging in the action.
Q:
Which of the following babies will most likely take the longest time to habituate to novel visual forms?
A) Aaron, a newborn
B) Jared, a 2-month-old
C) Virginia, a 4-month-old
D) Olivia, a 5-month-old
Q:
Which of the following statements is true regarding habituation and recovery in babies?
A) Newborn babies habituate and recover faster than 4-month-old babies.
B) Habituation to an auditory stimulus is evident in the third trimester of pregnancy.
C) Habituation and recovery are not mastered until the second half of the first year.
D) Newborns' attention spans are nonexistent; thus, they cannot habituate and recover.
Q:
A baby who first habituates to a green circle and then recovers to a blue circle
A) does not remember the green circle.
B) perceives both stimuli as identical.
C) prefers the green circle.
D) can distinguish between green and blue.
Q:
Habituation and recovery make learning more efficient byA) helping us anticipate what event is about to happen next.B) focusing our attention on those aspects of the environment we know least about.C) helping us generalize newly learned behaviors to unfamiliar contexts.D) influencing the occurrence of stimulus events in the environment.
Q:
Baby Quinn's attention to a song on an iPod decreased after her mother played it several times. When her mother played a different song, Quinn's attention increased. This is an example ofA) recovery.B) classical conditioning.C) habituation.D) operant conditioning.
Q:
When baby Raj's mom first started carrying an on-call beeper, Raj was easily awakened by the sound of it going off. After several nights, Raj's sleep was not disturbed by the beeping. This is an example of
A) recovery.
B) operant conditioning.
C) habituation.
D) classical conditioning.
Q:
__________ is strongly associated with 9-month-olds' formation of an increasingly context-free memory.
A) Food
B) Talking
C) Punishment
D) Crawling
Q:
At first, infants' memory for operant responses is
A) nonexistent.
B) highly context dependent.
C) context-free.
D) inconsistent.
Q:
A study conducted by Rovee-Collier using a mobile attached to a baby's foot showed that after 2- to 6-month-olds forget an operant response,
A) they need only a brief prompt to reinstate the memory.
B) they have to relearn the skill using classical conditioning.
C) their memory returns but diminishes dramatically.
D) they have to relearn the skill using habituation.
Q:
Research using the technique of attaching a baby's foot to a mobile with a long cord revealed that __________ babies remember how to activate the mobile for two weeks after training.A) newbornB) 2-month-oldC) 3-month-oldD) 6-month-old
Q:
Each time Baby Masha sucks on her bottle, she receives a sweet-tasting liquid. When baby Masha sucks on a pacifier, she is met with a sour taste, which causes her to purse her lips and stop sucking entirely. The sour taste is a(n)
A) unconditioned response.
B) conditioned response.
C) reinforcer.
D) punisher.
Q:
Sweet liquid increases the occurrence of the sucking response in baby Basil. Sweet liquid is a(n)
A) punisher.
B) conditioned response.
C) reinforcer.
D) unconditioned response.
Q:
In __________, infants act on the environment, and stimuli that follow their behavior change the probability that the behavior will occur again.
A) classical conditioning
B) operant conditioning
C) habituation
D) recovery
Q:
Sam presents a conditioned stimulus alone enough times, without pairing it with the unconditioned stimulus, that the conditioned response no longer occurs. Sam is demonstrating
A) reinforcement.
B) punishment.
C) extinction.
D) a novelty preference.
Q:
Before learning takes place, a(n) __________ stimulus must consistently produce a reflexive, or __________, response.A) unconditioned; unconditionedB) unconditioned; conditionedC) conditioned; unconditionedD) neutral; neutral
Q:
Right before baby Dom's mother leaves for work every morning, she takes her car keys off of a hook on the wall. As soon as Dom's mother unhooks the keys, Dom cries. In this example, __________ is the conditioned stimulus.
A) Dom's mother leaving for work
B) Dom's mother unhooking the keys
C) Dom's crying
D) morning time
Q:
Classical conditioning
A) works best after newborn reflexes disappear.
B) helps infants relax in unfamiliar situations due to the calming effect of the unconditioned stimulus.
C) makes an infant's environment more disorganized and less predictable.
D) helps infants recognize which events usually occur together in the everyday world.
Q:
Which of the following statements is true about learning capacities?
A) Newborns are capable of classical, but not operant, conditioning.
B) Infants do not yet learn by observing others.
C) Newborns have built-in learning capacities that permit them to profit from experience immediately.
D) Infants' natural preference for novel stimulation often interferes with learning.
Q:
In some hospitals, health professionals use the NBAS to
A) measure habituation and recovery to visual stimuli.
B) demonstrate to parents the capacities of their newborn infant.
C) measure the newborn's physical condition at 1 and 5 minutes after birth.
D) teach new mothers how to breastfeed their infants.
Q:
Cross-cultural research using NBAS scores reveals thatA) Asian babies are more irritable than Caucasian babies.B) Native-American babies are less irritable than Caucasian babies.C) U.S. babies have a stronger, more flexible muscle tone than Kipsigis babies of rural Kenya.D) in Zambia, Africa, maternal care has little to no effect on poor NBAS scores of undernourished infants.
Q:
The Neonatal Intensive Care Unit Network Neurobehavioral Scale (NNNS)
A) is specially designed for use with newborns at risk for developmental problems.
B) is useful in Western cultures, but is not helpful in cross-cultural evaluations.
C) evaluates a baby's reflexes, muscle tone, state changes, and responsiveness to physical and social stimuli.
D) evaluates a baby's skin color, complexion, pulse rate, reflex irritability, muscle tone, and breathing.
Q:
T. Berry Brazelton's Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS)
A) is specially designed for use with newborns at risk for developmental problems.
B) is useful in Western cultures, but is not helpful in cross-cultural research.
C) evaluates a baby's reflexes, muscle tone, state changes, and responsiveness to physical and social stimuli.
D) evaluates a baby's skin color, complexion, pulse rate, reflex irritability, muscle tone, and breathing.
Q:
Which of the following statements is true about crying infants?
A) Few parents respond to a crying baby's call for help with extra care and attention.
B) Abusive parents sometimes cite a high-pitched, grating cry as one factor that caused them to lose control and harm the baby.
C) Preterm and ill babies are the least likely to be abused by highly stressed parents.
D) Colic rarely subsides before 12 months of age.
Q:
Baby Xavier reacts especially strongly to unpleasant stimuli. His crying is intense and high-pitched. Xavier did not experience prenatal or birth complications and has no brain damage. Xavier probably
A) has colic.
B) is easier to calm down than other babies.
C) is at high risk for SIDS.
D) is deficient in REM sleep.
Q:
The cries of brain-damaged babies and those who have experienced prenatal and birth complications are often __________ than those of healthy infants.A) quieterB) longer in durationC) more shrill and piercingD) more muffled
Q:
Virtually all researchers agree that parents can lessen older babies' need to cry by
A) providing a multitude of engaging activities for them.
B) surrounding them with a variety of visually stimulating toys.
C) encouraging more mature ways of expressing their desires.
D) placing them in group child care in early infancy.
Q:
When Western parents choose to practice __________, amount of crying in the early months is reduced by about one-third.
A) proximal care
B) the "cry it out" method
C) nighttime cosleeping
D) kangaroo care
Q:
Dr. Thatcher believes that parental responsiveness is adaptive in that it ensures that the infant's basic needs will be met. At the same time, it brings the baby in close contact with the caregiver, who encourages the infant to communicate through means other than crying. Dr. Thatcher probably endorses __________ theory.
A) psychoanalytic
B) ethological
C) behavioral
D) ecological systems
Q:
To soothe a crying baby, most Western parents usually try
A) swaddling the baby.
B) infant massage.
C) lifting the baby to the shoulder.
D) taking the baby for a walk in a carriage.
Q:
Which of the following statements is true regarding adult responsiveness to infant cries?A) A baby's cry stimulates stronger feelings of arousal and discomfort in men than women.B) Parents who score low in empathy are most likely to respond quickly to infant crying.C) Compared to non-depressed mothers, depressed mothers tend to be more sensitive to their infant's crying.D) As babies get older, parents react to more subtle cues in the cry, which help them figure out what is wrong.
Q:
Crying typically peaks at
A) 3 weeks.
B) 6 weeks.
C) 3 months.
D) 6 months.
Q:
Which of the following is a protective measure to reduce the incidence of SIDS?
A) wrapping the baby in warm clothing and blankets
B) pacifier use
C) stomach sleeping
D) use of soft bedding
Q:
Two-month-old Roderick lives in a home with parents who both smoke cigarettes. He has a mild respiratory infection and sleeps on a soft crib mattress. Roderick is at high risk for
A) SIDS.
B) an ear infection.
C) a urinary tract infection.
D) cognitive delays.
Q:
Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) usually occurs
A) during the day.
B) during the second year of life.
C) in healthy infants with no signs of physical problems.
D) between ages 2 and 4 months.
Q:
Baby Wesley cries at the sound of another infant crying. Some researchers believe that this responseA) is a form of simple imitation.B) is an attempt to take an adult's attention from the other infant.C) reflects an inborn capacity to react to the suffering of others.D) is uncommon and probably signifies a cognitive abnormality.
Q:
The most common cause of a young infant's cry is
A) hearing a startling noise.
B) a novel stimulus.
C) fatigue.
D) hunger.
Q:
Babies with poor sleep organization are likely to
A) nap excessively during the day.
B) grow out of it by the end of the first year.
C) be behaviorally disorganized.
D) be cognitively advanced.
Q:
Rapid eye movements during sleepA) are a sign of central nervous system damage.B) help protect the health of the eye.C) are associated with a dreamless sleep.D) cause the vitreous to remain motionless.
Q:
The percentage of REM sleep is greatest in
A) preterm babies.
B) full-term newborns.
C) infants between 2 to 3 months.
D) infants between 6 to 9 months.
Q:
In cultures where cosleeping is widespread,A) children rarely sleep through the night.B) parents often complain about bedtime struggles.C) SIDS is rare.D) SIDS is common.
Q:
The American cultural norm of having infants sleep in a separate room from their parents is meant to foster
A) an awareness of personal boundaries.
B) respect for parents.
C) an interdependent self.
D) an independent self.
Q:
Cross-cultural research shows that cosleeping
A) is the norm for approximately 90 percent of the world's population.
B) causes a decrease in mothers' total sleep time.
C) is a risk factor for sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS).
D) children are at risk for later emotional problems, especially dependency.
Q:
In non-rapid-eye-movement sleep,
A) facial grimacing occurs.
B) breathing is uneven.
C) the body is almost motionless.
D) heart rate is irregular.
Q:
The expression "sleeping like a baby" was probably meant to describe the __________ state of arousal.A) REM sleepB) drowsinessC) NREM sleepD) quiet alertness
Q:
Napping usually subsidesA) around 6 to 9 months.B) by about 18 months.C) between 18 months and 2 years.D) between 3 and 5 years.
Q:
During the first month of life, the most fleeting state of arousal is
A) regular sleep.
B) irregular sleep.
C) quiet alertness.
D) waking activity and crying.
Q:
Baby Yolanda's eyelids are closed, and her breathing is irregular. Her limbs show gentle movements, and she shows some facial grimacing. Occasional rapid eye movements can be seen beneath her eyelids. Yolanda is displaying which state of arousal?
A) regular sleep
B) irregular sleep
C) drowsiness
D) quiet alertness
Q:
Pediatricians test reflexes carefully because weak, absent, overly rigid, or exaggerated reflexes may indicate
A) brain damage.
B) a circadian rhythm.
C) parental abuse or neglect.
D) skeletal trauma.
Q:
Which of the following reflexes may form the basis for complex motor skills that will develop later?
A) the Babinski reflex
B) the tonic neck reflex
C) the eye blink
D) the sucking reflex
Q:
The function of the Babinski reflex isA) to protect the infant from strong stimulation.B) linked to human evolutionary past, and may have helped an infant cling to the mother.C) to prepare an infant for voluntary reaching.D) unknown.
Q:
The rooting reflex disappears around
A) 3 weeks.
B) 3 months.
C) 4 months.
D) 6 months.
Q:
Baby Callum is displaying an inborn, automatic response to a particular form of stimulation. Callum is displaying a
A) basic emotion.
B) reflex.
C) self-conscious emotion.
D) state of arousal.
Q:
In relating to their physical and social worlds, babies are
A) passive for the first three to four months.
B) passive for the first year.
C) active from the very start.
D) passive for only the first month, and then active.
Q:
Psychologist William James viewed the world of a neonate as a(n)
A) blooming, buzzing confusion.
B) blank slate.
C) ordered, predictable environment.
D) refined, complex place.
Q:
Summarize milestones in the development of touch, taste, smell, and hearing that are present at birth and during the first half of the first year.
Q:
Explain dynamic systems theory of motor development. Why, according to this view, is motor development softly assembled rather than genetically hardwired?
Q:
Describe operant conditioning, reinforcers, and punishment.
Q:
Identify and describe useful techniques for soothing a crying baby.
Q:
Describe the five infant states of arousal.
Q:
Expensive early learning centers that feature a full curriculum of reading, math, science, art, music, and gymA) tend to produce the most academically advanced schoolchildren.B) can compensate for extreme deprivation in the early months of life.C) usually create a stress-free environment for infants and parents.D) can overwhelm children, cause them to withdraw, and threaten their interest in learning.
Q:
Which of the following is an accurate finding of the Bucharest Early Intervention Project?A) Foster placement is no better than institutionalization.B) The later the foster placement, the better the outcome.C) To be maximally effective, intensive intervention must begin early.D) The institutional-care group exceeded the foster-care group in perception of emotional expression.
Q:
Dmitri was adopted from a severely deprived orphanage. He has strabismus because of muscle weakness. If left untreated and the strabismus persists longer than a few months, Dmitri will probably
A) have long-term hearing difficulties.
B) be overwhelmed by stimulation, reacting to it with disorganized behavior or withdrawal.
C) show permanent deficits in visual acuity and depth perception.
D) experience short-term, mild cognitive delays.
Q:
In a study of severely deprived Romanian orphans who were later adopted, those who had been institutionalized past age 6 months showed
A) average mental test scores by adolescence.
B) serious intellectual defects.
C) little or no catch-up in physical size.
D) no improvement in mental test scores during middle childhood.
Q:
Which of the following children born with cataracts will likely show permanent impairment?A) Jon, who had corrective surgery at 4 months oldB) Jesse, who had corrective surgery at 4 years oldC) Jennifer, who had corrective surgery at 12 years oldD) Jackson, who had corrective surgery at 18 years old
Q:
Studies on the lasting effects of infant deprivation and sensitive periods are conducted
A) using parent volunteers who are not fully informed about the purpose of the research.
B) in naturally occurring environments, such as orphanages.
C) in highly-controlled, laboratory settings.
D) in low-income, single-parent households only.
Q:
Studies of animals exposed to extreme forms of sensory deprivation provide ample evidence that
A) operant learning plays a major role in early development.
B) sensitive periods in development exist.
C) developmental delays resulting from early life events cannot be overcome.
D) development proceeds according to the cephalocaudal and proximodistal trends.
Q:
Baby Franklin has figured out that crawling down a ramp might mean getting to the desired location or falling. Franklin's perception is guided by the discovery of
A) affordances.
B) invariant features.
C) contrast sensitivity.
D) binocular depth cues.
Q:
According to Eleanor and James Gibson's __________ theory, infants actively search for invariant features of the environment.
A) amodal perception
B) dynamic systems
C) differentiation
D) intermodal perception
Q:
Which of the following statements is true about intermodal perception?A) Intermodal perception develops very slowly over time.B) Intermodal sensitivity is crucial for perceptual development.C) Young infants notice changes in purely visual properties only when exposed to intermodal information.D) Intermodal perception interferes with social and language processing.
Q:
Babies quickly learn that certain sights are linked with certain sounds. This is because babies are sensitive to
A) optical sensory flow.
B) kinetic depth cues.
C) contrast sensitivity.
D) amodal sensory properties.
Q:
Baby Grace sees and hears a bouncing ball. When she hears the sound later, without seeing the ball, she is nonetheless able to recognize a picture of a ball. Grace is demonstrating
A) size constancy.
B) shape constancy.
C) intermodal perception.
D) object perception.
Q:
__________ and __________ are evident in the first week of life, long before babies can actively rotate objects and view them from different angles.
A) Binocular depth perception; shape constancy
B) Size constancy; shape constancy
C) Contrast sensitivity; pictorial depth perception
D) Size constancy; binocular depth perception
Q:
Baby Naomi is presented with photos of faces. She is most likely to look the longest at a(n)
A) female face than a male face.
B) older man's face than a younger man's face.
C) face judged by adults as attractive.
D) older woman's face than a younger woman's face.
Q:
Newborns prefer to look at photos and simplified drawings of faces with features arrangedA) upright.B) upside down.C) sideways.D) with the eyes closed.
Q:
When exposed to dynamic stimuli, infants
A) fixate on the image's edges.
B) fixate more on external features.
C) cannot thoroughly inspect the image until 4 months of age.
D) often become bored and listless.
Q:
Baby Charlotte prefers looking at a checkerboard with many small squares compared to looking at one with a few large squares. Charlotte is demonstrating
A) contrast sensitivity.
B) pictorial depth perception.
C) shape sensitivity.
D) binocular depth perception.
Q:
Visually impaired infants
A) attain gross- and fine-motor milestones at the same time as their sighted counterparts.
B) usually have adult caregivers who provide them with rich early exposure to sounding objects.
C) have great difficulty evoking stimulating caregiver interaction.
D) can imitate and pick up nonverbal social cues.
Q:
Describe common labor and delivery medications in the United States, and give the possible problems associated with their use.