Q&A Hero

Q: Which of the following is the correct sequence of phases for understanding observational learning? a) attention, retention, motivation, reproduction b) motivation, retention, reproduction, attention c) motivation, attention, reproduction, retention d) attention, retention, reproduction, motivation

Q: What is contingent praise? Give an example of how it might be used to increase student motivation.

Q: A student learns to add blocks and later transfers this skill to adding sticks, and checkers. Educational psychologists would say that the student is demonstrating: a) discrimination. b) the Premack Principle. c) generalization. d) shaping.

Q: One principle of providing incentives to learn is to provide clear and specific feedback. Make a list of feedback statements that would fit the definition of clear and specific feedback. For each item on the list write a contrasting example, illustrating feedback that is not clear and specific.

Q: At his locker, Rick is describing his exciting weekend to Tony, using very colorful and inappropriate language. Tony gestures down the hall to let Rick know that Sherri is approaching. Rick continues his story but instantly cleans up his language, sounding like a completely different person while Sherri walks by. Rick's adjustment of his behavior is based on: a) a fixed interval schedule. b) discrimination. c) shaping. d) immediate primary reinforcement.

Q: List ways teachers can enhance intrinsic motivation. Illustrate three of your strategies with specific classroom examples.

Q: A teacher spot-checks how students are doing by walking around the room, selecting students to observe at random and then reinforcing those who are working well. What type of schedule is being used? a) Variable ratio b) Fixed interval c) Variable interval d) Fixed ratio

Q: Mr. Joon, a middle school health teacher, heard many horror stories about Stuart from his colleagues over the years. "Just wait until you get Stuart!" they said. It has finally happened. Stuart's name appears on Mr. Joon's class roster for the fall term. As Mr. Joon makes out the seating chart for his first period health class, he puts Stuart in the front center row where he can keep close watch. How might Mr. Joon's behavior create the discipline problem he is trying to avoid?

Q: Students do not know when a reinforcer is coming, but know that if they continue to do their work, it will eventually appear. The students are being reinforced on what type of schedule? a) Fixed ratio b) Continuous c) Fixed interval d) Variable ratio

Q: What is learned helplessness? What are its causes? How can teachers alleviate it?

Q: Students receive a reward every third time they score 90 percent or higher on a test. What schedule is being used to reinforce the students? a) fixed interval b) variable interval c) variable ratio d) fixed ratio

Q: How might students who are motivated by learning goals behave differently from students who are motivated by performance goals?

Q: A student is used to getting the attention of the teacher by making annoying sounds. One day the teacher decides to ignore the sounds by showing no reaction. Based on behavioral theory, what would be the expected outcome, assuming the teacher's attention was the reinforcer? a) The behavior will be immediately extinguished. b) The behavior will immediately increase in frequency, but then decrease over time. c) The behavior will immediately decrease in frequency, but then increase over time. d) There will be very little change, since the teacher did not apply an aversive stimulus.

Q: Suzanne and Pedro got D's on their quizzes. To Suzanne, Mr. Banister says "What happened to you? Did you forget to study?" To Pedro he says "Okay, that's a pretty good score for you." The two students then make attributions: influenced by the teacher's comments, they explain their poor performance to themselves. Which student is more likely to make an ability attribution? An effort attribution? For each of the students, explain how the teacher's comment influenced the type of attribution made. Then explain how the type of attribution made will influence the student's expectations for success in the future.

Q: An English teacher wants students to begin writing paragraphs on various topics. How should the teacher proceed in explaining the parts of paragraph construction? a) Allow the student to write in whatever manner he or she chooses. b) Reinforce only the behaviors that demonstrate the final skill. c) Have students write entire paragraphs, then hand them in so the teacher can score them on grammar, punctuation, and spelling. d) Teach the skills step-by-step, gradually shaping the final skill.

Q: Using the attribution theory of motivation, describe a situation in which a person attributes success to each of the following: ability, effort, task difficulty, and luck. For each of these situations, quote the specific attribution made, and indicate the attribution's locus of control, and whether it is stable or unstable.

Q: A teacher reinforces a child first for recognizing two letters of the alphabet, then for recognizing four, then six, and so on. The teacher is using a technique called: a) generalization. b) shaping. c) negative reinforcement. d) "Grandma's Rule."

Q: Jim Grover's eighth graders are engaged in a cooperative learning task. He expected a high level of interest, but the students are restless. Jim's observations are puzzling. In the "wolves" group, Mick and Rick are whispering with their backs to the group. In the "manatees," Ginger is looking out the window, and she is very pale. The "hyenas" are discussing the topic, but keep getting sidetracked in arguments over who came up with the good ideas. Finally, two of the three "otters" who are not absent today are sitting staring at Marty, the third, who keeps standing up and then sitting down, at a rapid pace. Jim's students may have current needs that are getting priority over his learning objectives. Identify four of those needs, based on the students' behavior. Using at least two levels of Maslow's hierarchy, explain how the students' needs affect their motivation to be on-task in Jim's lesson. For one of Jim's groups, suggest a motivational strategy that would address the problem, and explain why Maslow would expect it to work.

Q: A coach is using a shaping technique to help a student work on a figure skating routine. According to behaviorists, which of the following strategy can be most effectively applied to assist the skater? a) Requiring extra practice time for missed jumps. b) Immediate reinforcement of approximations of the desired skill. c) Running the entire routine from beginning to end. d) Withholding feedback.

Q: How would a behavioral theorist explain motivation? Briefly explain the relevance of the schedules-of-reinforcement concept to motivation. Write a brief explanation of a concept that theorists such as Maslow and Weiner would include in their theories, but that a behavioral theorist would not. On what grounds would the behavioral theorist object to this concept?

Q: Which of the following reinforcement procedures would be most appropriate for the classroom? a) As students begin a new task, praise the desired final behavior only, ignoring any approximations to the response you are seeking. b) Give immediate reinforcement when a desired behavior is observed. c) Increase the frequency of the reward over time. d) Delay punishment following misbehavior.

Q: Which of the following strategies is a key component to self-regulated learning? a) Self-praise b) Peer praise c) Teacher praise d) Administrative praise

Q: Consequences that weaken behavior are called: a) secondary consequences. b) negative reinforcers. c) anticipatory consequences. d) punishers.

Q: Aidan believes that his success on the final was out of pure luck because he did not put forth any effort into studying. Aidan's locus of control is: a) internal. b) intrinsic. c) external. d) extrinsic.

Q: Which of the following terms is defined as follows: applying unpleasant stimuli to decrease a target behavior? a) negative reinforcement b) presentation punishment c) positive reinforcement d) removal punishment

Q: A student who needs a reward from a teacher to complete a task at hand is exhibiting the need for what type of motivation? a) extrinsic b) intrinsic c) authentic d) intangible

Q: The belief behind which of the following discipline strategies is that students want to be part of the social setting? a) Premack Principle b) points for attendance c) time out d) fixed ratio reinforcement

Q: The feeling that an individual will not be successful regardless of actual ability has been identified as: a) learning goal. b) performance goal. c) expectancy theory. d) learned helplessness.

Q: Which of the following examples best illustrates removal punishment? (assume that the undesirable behavior decreases after the consequence occurs). a) sending a student to the principal b) scolding a student for misbehavior c) making students do extra work d) taking away recess

Q: A deficiency need has been defined by Maslow as: a) the need to know and understand. b) critical to physical and psychological well-being. c) an understanding of the world around us. d) a need to be satisfied by a peer.

Q: What type of reinforcer is a gold star that a student receives as a reward for completing her homework? a) intrinsic b) extrinsic c) negative d) primary

Q: Students can learn to mentally give themselves a pat on the back when they finish a task or stop at regular intervals to assess what they have done. What is this called? a) self-regulated learning b) integrated learning c) egocentrism d) external attribution

Q: What type of reinforcer is being encountered when students enjoy taking a field trip (which is the reward itself)? a) intrinsic b) extrinsic c) negative d) primary

Q: A teacher praises a student for good work, but frowns and looks displeased at the same time. By these actions, the teacher is failing to make the praise seem: a) contingent. b) specific. c) credible. d) interesting.

Q: The Premack Principle links less-desired activities to: a) misbehavior. b) positive participation. c) enjoyable activities. d) punishment.

Q: Praise is effective as a student motivator to the extent that it is specific, credible, and: a) emotionally neutral. b) contingent on the desired behavior. c) given to all students in the same words. d) focused on performance of easy tasks.

Q: A reinforcer that allows a student to escape from an unpleasant situation is called a(n): a) secondary reinforcer. b) unconditioned reinforcer. c) primary reinforcer. d) negative reinforcer.

Q: Research on feedback has found that providing information on the results of someone's actions: a) needs to be accompanied by a material motivator to be useful. b) can be an adequate reward if it is specific, clear, and prompt. c) is most often ineffective as a reward. d) is most effective when used infrequently.

Q: Whenever students turn in their homework, a teacher rewards them with computer time. The more often they turn in their homework, the more they are allowed to use the computers. Students have been turning in their homework with increasing frequency. Thus, the computer time is serving as a(n): a) punisher. b) unconditioned stimulus. c) reinforcer. d) aversive stimulus.

Q: Research on feedback would support the practice of: a) giving feedback that leads students to make external attributions as they try to understand their success or failure. b) delaying feedback by a few days after an activity is completed. c) writing only positive comments on returned reports or tests. d) giving many brief quizzes rather than a few long tests.

Q: The three basic categories of secondary reinforcers are: a) social, token, and unconditioned. b) activity, token, and metacognition. c) social, mediation, and symbolic. d) social, activity, and token.

Q: A student has done well on a test. Which of the following feedback statements from the teacher would be best, based on the discussion in your text? a) "You did so wellyou really lucked out." b) "Your definitions were very clear." c) "Good work, you are still one of the best students." d) "You're so smart!"

Q: A secondary reinforcer takes on value: a) by directly satisfying basic human needs. b) when a primary reinforcer loses its value. c) when it is associated with primary reinforcers. d) when reinforcement is withheld.

Q: When assigning material that is not interesting to all students, the teacher must try to enhance student motivation to learn. To prevent student confusion, teachers must: a) assign simple projects. b) read aloud as students follow in texts. c) express clear expectations. d) never assign uninteresting topics.

Q: Which of the following is a secondary reinforcer? a) Money b) Food c) Security d) Sex

Q: The advantage of simulations is that they allow students to learn about a subject: a) without the help of peers. b) without interference. c) from the inside. d) from the outside.

Q: What is the focus of operant conditioning? a) Animal learning rather than human learning b) Reflexive types of responses c) Treating learning as associating stimuli, rather than acting on one's surroundings. d) The relationship between a behavior and its consequence

Q: One way to enhance students' intrinsic interest is to: a) give them some choice over what they will study. b) allow the teacher to make all the decisions. c) provide material rewards over a long period of time. d) avoid surprises.

Q: In classical conditioning, the object or event that automatically elicits a behavior before the conditioning takes place is referred to as the: a) unconditioned response. b) conditioned response. c) unconditioned stimulus. d) neutral stimulus.

Q: Teachers can enhance intrinsic motivation by: a) withholding feedback. b) giving constant praise. c) personalizing lesson material. d) giving tokens.

Q: In Pavlov's experiments with dogs, which of the following best characterizes the role of the bell (or tone), prior to conditioning? a) Conditioned response b) Unconditioned response c) Neutral stimulus d) Unconditioned stimulus

Q: Which of the following statements of how to use extrinsic rewards is supported by our text? a) Use them on most tasks, regardless of their intrinsic interest. b) Use primary, not secondary, extrinsic reinforcers. c) Do not use them in classroom situations. d) Use them mainly for subjects that have low intrinsic interest.

Q: Which of the following statements best fits a behaviorist's conception of learning? a) Learning is a change in an individual caused by experience. b) Learning is a change in an individual's knowledge structures. c) Learning is synonymous with cognition. d) Learning is synonymous with development.

Q: Recent research on classroom rewards, using older students and school-like tasks: a) provides unequivocal support for the idea of offering extrinsic rewards on most school tasks. b) suggests that extrinsic rewards do not necessarily decrease intrinsic motivation. c) clearly supports the earlier finding that material rewards decrease intrinsic motivation. d) suggests that by the time students reach high school, extrinsic rewards are no longer influential.

Q: Meg Campbell teaches high school physics in a private Christian school in a Middle-Class, suburban community. Her best friend and roommate, Chris Gustafson, teaches second grade in a public elementary school in the same community. Today, both are planning to attend a meeting in which the state's governor will propose that the state adopt a school vouchers program. Meg meets up with Chris just outside the high school auditorium, which is filled to capacity. They find seats just as the governor is being introduced. "Thank you, Principal Ledderman, for that fine introduction," the governor begins. "Let me say that I am here to tell you about a proposal I will take to the legislaturea proposal for school vouchers. I think that a school vouchers program will revolutionize education in this state because it holds schools accountable. Because taxpayer dollars are given directly to parents to give to a school of their choice, school vouchers will increase competition, thus making all schools, or those that survive, better institutions. We practice this in business, why not our schools? In addition, vouchers will give money to poor kids who need to escape from ineffective urban schools. It will give them a chance to get away from schools that aren't making it." Chris, who is opposed to school vouchers, raises her hand. She asks the governor, "Aren't public schools held to different standards than private schools? We have to be licensed by the state, meet state and federal mandates about, for example, special education, and we have to accept all students. How can public schools compete with schools that have fewer regulations?" "The differences shouldn't matter," replied the governor. "You've been trained to teach under a variety of circumstances; at least that's what the university people tell us. Public schools have been able to do what they want for too long. Some healthy competition would make them better. How could you be against that?" Meg questions the governor next. "I work in a Christian school. What about the separation of church and state? Would vouchers for my school be constitutional?" Before he can reply, others speak up. "How can you say that poor kids will benefit? If the state gives them a couple of thousand dollars, but it costs $10,000 to attend a private school, how can this help?" Using information from the text, continue the discussion by listing advantages and disadvantages of vouchers. Include in your discussion information from the text about special populations who might be affected by such a practice.

Q: In a study explained in our text, students who expected and then received an award for drawing with felt-tipped markers: a) later spent less time drawing with the markers than did students who were not rewarded. b) later spent more time drawing with the markers than did students who were not rewarded. c) drew pictures that were judged higher in quality than did students who were not rewarded. d) drew pictures that were judged lower in quality than did students who were not rewarded.

Q: Historically, a great debate has focused on whether intelligence is a product of heredity or a product of an individual's environment. Using supporting evidence from the text, argue one of these two points of view.

Q: Mr. Green is making a special effort to help Steve. When he plans lessons he checks the instructions for learning tasks to make sure they are clear and specific. Mr. Green also avoids time pressure, gives students a chance to correct errors on their work and fosters an accepting, noncompetitive classroom climate. His emphasis on these strategies for helping Steve suggests that Steve has been having difficulty with: a) the incentive value of success. b) anxiety. c) self-actualization. d) following classroom rules.

Q: Researchers claim that few genetically based differences exist between males and females; however, differences are still observed. What types of differences exist and to what are the differences attributed?

Q: According to our text, the main source of anxiety in school is: a) being late to class. b) highly structured instruction. c) fear of failure. d) gangs.

Q: Make lists of multicultural classroom activities that would be appropriate for elementary, middle level, and secondary students.

Q: Which of the following statements would a student suffering from learned helplessness be likely to make? a) I need to adjust my strategy for taking my next driver's test. b) If I try harder, I can succeed. c) It doesn't matter what I do. d) I failed the quiz because I didn't study enough.

Q: Reviews of research focusing on the best-designed studies of quality bilingual programs yield positive results. What are they?

Q: Compared to those with performance goals, students with learning goals: a) demonstrate inconsistent effort. b) persist in the face of obstacles. c) perceive themselves as more intelligent. d) continue to seek peer approval for performance.

Q: Trace the history of school desegregation beginning before 1954, to the present.

Q: Expectancy theory supports the idea that grading systems should be: a) fairly easy so that most students earn the highest grade. b) challenging, but not extremely difficult. c) bimodal, such that half the students receive low grades and half receive high grades. d) extremely difficult so that only a small percentage earns the highest grade.

Q: A teacher's low expectations of some students can become a self-fulfilling prophecy. What does this statement mean and how does it apply to social class?

Q: Studies have shown that the most successful students: a) correctly estimate the degree to which their success is due to their own effort. b) are not affected by the difficulty of a task. c) tend to overestimate the degree to which their own behavior leads to success. d) have an external locus of control.

Q: What does your book say about social class relative to income, education, behaviors, attitudes, cultural factors, school readiness, school achievement, race and ethnicity?

Q: Ice skating was a new experience for Leonard. He found that he had trouble keeping up with his friends, who had skated many times. After his first evening on the ice a friend invited him to go skating again. Leonard flatly refused, insisting that "It's not for meI stink at skating." Which of the following best describes the attribution Leonard is making to explain his failure at skating? a) Internal, unstable b) External, stable c) Internal, stable d) External, unstable

Q: David and Luke are starting kindergarten. They both have loving and supportive parents, but their backgrounds are different. David's social-class background would be classified as "low SES," while Luke's is "high SES." What do researchers mean by "SES"? What are its components? Using examples, illustrate how differences in David's and Luke's backgrounds may influence how readily they will adapt to the Middle-Class school environment.

Q: Emily took a standardized test of individual ability differences in 8th grade. The test assessed aptitude for a wide range of skills, classified according to career paths. Emily's parents were eager to find out what careers Emily was best suited for. When the results arrived, they were reported in stanine scores. Emily's parents anxiously studied the scores, but found that they were all sevens, from mechanical aptitude, to artistic ability, to language skills, to math computation. Emily's reaction was "I guess I can be anything I want, but that doesn't really help much." What could you tell Emily's parents that might help them make sense of Emily's scores? Is Emily very talented in all areas? How could a different scoring system shed light on Emily's profile of abilities?

Q: A student with an internal locus of control is likely to blame poor performance on: a) lack of effort. b) parents' pressures to succeed. c) bad luck. d) the teacher's difficult tests.

Q: Asking a student to understand the plight of a Jewish family while under Nazi occupation is an example of a) prejudice reduction. b) equity pedagogy. c) knowledge construction. d) content integration.

Q: Jim Bagley, principal of West High School, opened the morning paper before starting to work for the day. He read that East High School, the other secondary school in a large suburban community, scored higher on the Pre-Scholastic Achievement Test (Pre-SAT) than did West high. The story Jim read noted that East High scored third in the state while West High scored seventh. The principal from East High was quoted as saying, "We're very pleased with our test scores. They certainly show the public that we're doing a good job." Jim was concerned about the public's reaction to such a story and vowed to find a way to improve standardized test scores at West High. As test time rolled around again, Mr. Bagley had a plan. In past years, all of West High students were notified of and allowed to take the Pre-SAT, and many of them did. This time Mr. Bagley and the school counselor went to all of the advanced placement classes to announce that the test would be offered. No one else was told about the test. Mr. Bagley was pleased on test day as most of the school's "best and brightest" were there, but few others. Today, Jim Bagley opens the paper and reads the headlines: "West High Is Best In State." Discuss some of the issues brought forth in the case, including reporting and interpreting standardized test scores.

Q: A student believes that her reason for success in reading is the effort put into the task. The student's locus of control is: a) external. b) luck-based. c) internal. d) dimensional.

Q: Teaching techniques that facilitate success of students from different ethnic and social groups has been defined as a) prejudice reduction. b) equity pedagogy. c) knowledge construction. d) content integration.

Q: Criticisms of standardized tests often center on bias. Describe two specific examples of test bias.

Q: A student says, "I did well because of some lucky guessing." The type of attribution being demonstrated is: a) external, unstable. b) internal, stable. c) internal, unstable. d) external, stable.

Q: In an English immersion placement, a student is primarily taught in the following manner: a) Children are taught in their native language and English. b) Children are taught in two different languages but at different times in the day. c) Students are taught primarily their native language. d) Students are taught primarily in English.