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Question
Explain Akers' differential reinforcement theory and discuss how it is associated with, or employs, concepts from Sutherland's differential association.Answer
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Related questions
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The evolution of criminal law has created and eliminated many laws. Among those currently recognized is __________, which is the "the willful, malicious and repeated following and harassing of another person."
a. stalking
b. domestic violence
c. bullying
d. assault
Q:
College students who are drunk when they assault other people may claim they were suffering from a mental impairment that prevented them from understanding the harmfulness of their acts. They are using what type of defense?
a. excuses
b. justifications
c. intent
d. insanity
Q:
Duress, self-defense, and entrapment are defenses in which the individual usually admits committing the criminal act but maintains that he or she should not be held criminally liable. These are what type of defense?
a. excuses
b. justifications
c. intent
d. insanity
Q:
Statutory crimes are referred to as:
a. mala in se
b. mala prohibitum
c. actus reus
d. mens rea
Q:
Criminal law is shaped by all but which of the following?
a. shifts in culture and social conventions
b. judicial decision-making
c. legislative statutes
d. social control mechanisms
Q:
The branch of the law that defines crimes and their punishment is known as ______________.
a. substantive law
b. procedural law
c. civil law
d. administrative law
Q:
Under this view, groups able to assert their political power use the law and criminal justice system to advance their economic and social positions. Criminal laws are viewed as acts created to protect the haves from the have-nots.
a. conflict
b. consensus
c. interactionist
d. common
Q:
The sub-area of criminology concerned with the role social forces play in shaping criminal law and the role criminal law plays in shaping society is known as:
a. victimology
b. penology
c. criminal statistics
d. the sociology of law
Q:
_________________ serve as models or frameworks for understanding human behavior and the forces that shape its content and direction.
a. Theories
b. Social control mechanisms
c. Research methods
d. Corrections
Q:
Several sub-areas of criminology exist within the broader areas of criminology. These subareas are termed:
a. the criminological enterprise
b. the victim-offender enterprise
c. the sociological enterprise
d. the justice-offender enterprise
Q:
Criminologists use ________ methods to study the nature, extent, cause, and control of criminal behavior.
a. economic
b. scientific
c. sociological
d. psychological
Q:
A ______________ is a more serious offense that carries a long prison sentence or even death.
Q:
Among the rights won by inmates, which of the following is not one of them?
a. the right to secure proper medical attention
b. the right to freedom of speech and press unless it interferes or threatens institutional freedom.
c. the right to be free from cruel and unusual physical treatment while incarcerated.
d. the right to be segregated along racial lines.
Q:
The underlying purpose of indeterminate sentencing is to:
a. restrain the use of judicial discretion
b. to ensure that sentences are applied in a fair and equitable manner
c. promote truth-in-sentencing
d. individualize each sentence in the interests of rehabilitating the offender
Q:
The Supreme Court in ____________________________ gave inmates the right to secure proper medical attention.
Q:
Executions may actually increase the likelihood of murders being committed; this is a consequence referred to as the _________________________.
Q:
By _________________ a convicted offender in a secure facility, such as a prison or jail, the state seeks to reduce or eliminate his or her opportunity to commit future crimes.
Q:
A directed verdict means that the defense did present enough evidence to disprove all the elements of the alleged crime.
Q:
While the Fifth Amendment provides protection from double jeopardy, if an act violates the laws of two states, the offender may be tried in each state under the:
a. equivalent sovereignty doctrine
b. equal jurisdiction doctrine
c. dual jurisdiction doctrine
d. dual sovereignty doctrine
Q:
If a defendant is convicted, the judge normally orders a presentence investigation conducted by the _____________ preparatory to imposing a sentence.
a. prosecuting attorney
b. probation department
c. defense attorney
d. court bailiff
Q:
Some defendants are detained because they cannot make bail. If a defendant is denied bail because of the danger they pose to society, the detention is termed:
a. anticipatory detention
b. preemptive detention
c. protective detention
d. preventive detention
Q:
The bail system goes back to English common law and is meant to ensure the appearance of the defendant at trial. Who actually sets the amount of bail?
a. a probation officer
b. a prosecutor
c. a magistrate
d. a court bailiff
Q:
In the United States, what is the "court of last resort?"
a. a state's supreme court
b. the Executive Office of the President
c. the U.S. Supreme Court
d. the U.S. Attorney General's federal appeals court
Q:
An aggressive policing strategy that identifies and focuses on a specific crime or specific criminals and then develops strategies to counteract them is known as
a. community-policing
b. problem-oriented policing
c. intelligence-led policing
d. community-led policing
Q:
The view that becoming a criminal is a learning process in which potential delinquents master skills that enable them to counterbalance conventional values and drift back and forth between illegitimate and conventional behavior is known as:
a. social reaction theory
b. differential association theory
c. differential reinforcement theory
d. neutralization theory
Q:
Differential association has a number of important findings. What finding is false?
a. Crime appears to be intergenerational
b. The more deviant one's social network and network of affiliations, the more likely one will engage in antisocial behavior.
c. The influence of deviant friends is not supportive of delinquency.
d. Differential association is multi-cultural.
Q:
Schools contribute to criminality when they:
a. track students to identify academic potential
b. fail to offer diverse curriculums
c. are located in inner-city areas
d. hire substandard teachers
Q:
Youth who grow up in households characterized by conflict and tension, and where there is a lack of familial love and support, are susceptible to:
a. depression
b. delinquency
c. poverty
d. dropping out
Q:
The interactions people have with various organizations, institutions, and processes of society is known as:
a. stigmatization
b. socialization
c. drift
d. amplification
Q:
________________________ refers to judicial practices in some jurisdictions whereby harsher sentences are imposed on African Americans for certain offenses.